Prevalence of female genital mutilation by country

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is practised in 28 countries in western, eastern, and north-eastern Africa, in parts of Asia and the Middle East, and within some immigrant communities in Europe and North America, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). The WHO defines the practice as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons."[1]

Contents

Classifications of FGM

Main article: Female genital mutilation

The WHO identifies four types of FGM:

Prevalence

Amnesty International estimates that over 130 million women worldwide have been affected by some form of FGM, with over three million girls at risk every year.[3] It is mainly practised in 28 African countries, in a band that stretches from Senegal in West Africa to Ethiopia on the east coast, as well as from Egypt in the north to Tanzania in the south.[4] Egypt passed a law banning FGM in 2008.[5]

In the Arabian peninsula, Types I and II FGM are usually performed, often referred to as "Sunna circumcision," especially among Afro-Arabs (ethnic groups of African descent are more likely to prefer infibulation). The practice occurs particularly in northern Saudi Arabia, southern Jordan, and northern Iraq (Kurdistan).[6][7] In the Iraqi village of Hasira, a study found that 60 percent of the females reported having undergone FGM.[6] There is also circumstantial evidence to suggest that FGM is practised in Syria.[8] In Oman, a few communities still practice it, though experts believe the number is small and declining annually. In the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, it is practiced mainly among foreign workers from East Africa and the Nile Valley. A 2009 study suggested that FGM had virtually disappeared among the Negev Bedouin.[9]

The practice can also be found among a few ethnic groups in South America.[4] In Indonesia, it is common in several districts; almost all are Type I or Type IV. Sometimes the procedures are merely symbolic, and no actual cutting is done.[10] As a result of immigration, FGM has also spread to Europe, Australia, and the United States, with some families having their daughters undergo the procedure while on vacation overseas. As Western governments become more aware of FGM, legislation has come into effect in many countries to make the practice a criminal offense. In 2006, Khalid Adem became the first man in the United States to be prosecuted for circumcising his daughter.[11]

Africa

Further information: Maputo Protocol

In July 2003 at its second summit, the African Union adopted the Maputo Protocol promoting women's rights including and to end FGM. It came into force in November 2005, and by December 2008, 25 member countries had ratified it.[12]

Algeria
Female genital mutilation is present in Algeria.[13]
Benin (17% prevalence, Type II)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Benin.[14]
Burkina Faso (73% prevalence, Type II)
A law prohibiting FGM was enacted in 1996 and went into effect in February 1997. Even before this law, however, a presidential decree had set up the National Committee against excision and imposed fines on people guilty of excising girls and women.[12] The new law includes stricter punishment. Several women excising girls have been handed prison sentences. Burkina Faso ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2006.[15]
Cameroon (20% prevalence, Type I and II)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Cameroon.[16]
Central African Republic (43.4% prevalence, Type I and II)
In 1996, the President issued an Ordinance prohibiting FGM throughout the country. It has the force of national law. Any violation of the Ordinance is punishable by imprisonment of from one month and one day to two years and a fine of 5,100 to 100,000 francs (approximately US$8–160). No arrests are known to have been made under the law.
Chad (60% prevalence, Type II and III)
In 2001 law was being drafted to specifically outlaw FGM. Prior to this it may have been a punishable offence under existing laws protecting minors from involuntary physical assault.[12]
Comoros
Female genital mutilation is prevalent on Comoros.[17]
Côte d'Ivoire (44.5% prevalence, Type II)
A December 18, 1998 law provides that harm to the integrity of the genital organ of a woman by complete or partial removal, excision, desensitization or by any other procedure will, if harmful to a women's health, be punishable by imprisonment of one to five years and a fine of 360,000 to two million CFA Francs (approximately US$576–3,200). The penalty is five to twenty years incarceration if a death occurs during the procedure and up to five years' prohibition of medical practice, if this procedure is carried out by a doctor.[12]
Democratic Republic of the Congo (5% prevalence, Type II)
Female genital mutilation is practiced in the Congo.[14][16]
Djibouti (90–98% prevalence, Type II and III)
FGM was outlawed in the country's revised Penal Code that went into effect in April 1995. Article 333 of the Penal Code provides that persons found guilty of this practice will face a five year prison term and a fine of one million Djibouti francs (approximately US$5,600). Djibouti ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2005.[12]
Egypt (78–97% prevalence, Type I, II and III)
Egypt's Ministry of Health and Population has banned all forms of female genital mutilation since 2007.[12] The ministry's order declared it is 'prohibited for any doctors, nurses, or any other person to carry out any cut of, flattening or modification of any natural part of the female reproductive system'. Islamic authorities in the nation also stressed that Islam opposes female genital mutilation. The Grand Mufti of Egypt, Ali Gomaa, said that it is "Prohibited, prohibited, prohibited."[18] The June 2007 Ministry ban eliminated a loophole that allowed girls to undergo the procedure for health reasons.[19] There had previously been provisions under the Penal Code involving "wounding" and "intentional infliction of harm leading to death", as well as a ministerial decree prohibiting FGM. In December 1997, the Court of Cassation (Egypt's highest appeals court) upheld a government banning of the practice providing that those who did not comply would be subjected to criminal and administrative punishments. This law had proved ineffective and in a survey in 2000, a study found that 97% of the country's population still practiced FGM; a 2005 study found that over 95% of Egyptian women have undergone some form of FGM.[20]
Eritrea (90% prevalence, Type I, II, and III)
Eritrea has outlawed all forms of female genital mutilation since 2007.[12][21]
Ethiopia (69.7%–94.5% prevalence, Type I, II, III, and IV)
Ethiopia's Regional statistics of the prevalence from the survey are: Afar Region – 94.5%; Harare Region – 81.2%; Amhara Region – 81.1%; Oromia Region – 79.6%; Addis Ababa City – 70.2%; Somali Region – 69.7%; Beneshangul Gumuz Region – 52.9%; Tigray Region – 48.1%; Southern Region – 46.3%. This practice is not specifically illegal in Ethiopia. Discussions with government officials and NGOs active in the eradication of these practices indicate that the legal provision for prohibiting harmful traditional practices and the policy statements against them are not, as a practical matter, enforced. There are no documented cases of women going to court over or seeking protection against this practice. We are unaware of any groups or organizations that provide protection to women or girls who wish to avoid it.[12]
Gambia (80–90% prevalence, Type I, II, III and IV)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Gambia.[14][16]
Ghana (40% prevalence, Type I, II and III)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Ghana.[17] In 1989, the head of the government of Ghana, President Rawlings, issued a formal declaration against FGM. Article 39 of Ghana's Constitution also provides in part that traditional practices that are injurious to a person's health and well being are abolished. Ghana ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2007.[12]
Guinea (98.6% prevalence, Type I, II and III)
FGM is illegal in Guinea under Article 265 of the Penal Code. The punishment is hard labor for life and if death results within 40 days after the crime, the perpetrator will be sentenced to death. No cases regarding the practice under the law have ever been brought to trial. Article 6 of the Guinean Constitution, which outlaws cruel and inhumane treatment, could be interpreted to include these practices, should a case be brought to the Supreme Court. A member of the Guinean Supreme Court is working with a local NGO on inserting a clause into the Guinean Constitution specifically prohibiting these practices. Guinea signed the Maputo Protocol in 2003 but has not ratified it.[12]
Guinea-Bissau (50% prevalence)
Female genital mutilation is present in Guinea-Bissau.[16] A law banning the practice nationwide was made in 2011.[22]
Kenya (50% prevalence, Type I, II and III)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Kenya.[16] The practice was made illegal nationwide in September 2011. [23]
Liberia (60% prevalence, Type II)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Liberia.[16]
Libya
Female genital mutilation is practiced in Libya.[17]
Malawi
Female genital mutilation is practiced in Malawi.[17]
Mali (92% prevalence, Type I, II and III)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Mali.[16]
Mauritania (71% prevalence, Type I and II)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Mauritania.[16]
Mozambique (No Data)
Female genital mutilation is present in Mozambique.[17]
Niger (20% prevalence, Type II)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Niger.[16]
Nigeria (25.1% prevalence, Type I, II and III)
There is no federal law banning the practice of FGM in Nigeria. Opponents of these practices rely on Section 34(1)(a) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria that states "no person shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment" as the basis for banning the practice nationwide. A member of the House of Representatives has drafted a bill, not yet in committee, to outlaw this practice.[12] Nigeria ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2005.
Republic of the Congo (5% prevalence, Type II)
Female genital mutilation is practiced in the Republic of the Congo.[16]
Senegal (20–30% prevalence, Type II and III)
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Senegal.[16] A law that was passed in January 1999 makes FGM illegal in Senegal. President Diouf had appealed for an end to this practice and for legislation outlawing it. The law modifies the Penal Code to make this practice a criminal act, punishable by a sentence of one to five years in prison. A spokesperson for the human rights group RADDHO (The African Assembly for the Defense of Human Rights) noted in the local press that "Adopting the law is not the end, as it will still need to be effectively enforced for women to benefit from it. Senegal ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2005.[12]
Sierra Leone (90% prevalence, Type II)
Female genital mutilation is practiced in Sierra Leone.[16]
Somalia (98% prevalence, Type I and III)
In 1999 Parliament approved legislation making FGM illegal although there is little evidence to support its enforcement.[12][24]
South Africa
Female genital mutilation is present in South Africa.[17]
Sudan (91% prevalence, Type I, II and III)
Currently there is no law forbidding FGM, although Sudan was the first country to outlaw it in 1946, under the British. Type III was prohibited under the 1925 Penal Code, with less severe forms allowed. Outreach groups have been trying to eradicate the practice for 50 years, working with NGOs, religious groups, the government, the media and medical practitioners. Arrests have been made but no further action seems to have taken place.[12] Sudan signed the Maputo Protocol in June, 2008 but no ratification has yet been deposited with the African Union.
Tanzania (17.6% prevalence, Type II and III)
Section 169A of the Sexual Offences Special Provisions Act of 1998 prohibits FGM. Punishment is imprisonment of from five to fifteen years or a fine not exceeding 300,000 shillings (approximately US$250) or both. There have been some arrests under this legislation, but no reports of prosecutions yet. Tanzania ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2007.
Togo (50% prevalence, Type II)
Female genital mutilation is practiced in Togo.[16] On October 30, 1998, the National Assembly unanimously voted to outlaw the practice of FGM. Penalties under the law can include a prison term of two months to ten years and a fine of 100,000 francs to one million francs (approximately US$160 to 1,600). A person who had knowledge that the procedure was going to take place and failed to inform public authorities can be punished with one month to one year imprisonment or a fine of from 20,000 to 500,000 francs (approximately US$32 to 800). Togo ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2005.[12]
Uganda (<5% prevalence, Type I and II)
Anyone convicted of carrying out FGM is subject to 10 years in prison. If the life of the patient is lost during the operation a life sentence is recommended.[25] In 1996, a court intervened to prevent the performance of FGM under Section 8 of the Children Statute, which makes it unlawful to subject a child to social or customary practices harmful to the child's health. Uganda signed the Maputo Protocol in 2003 but has not ratified it.[26] In early July 2009, President Yoweri Museveni stated that a law would soon be passed prohibiting the practice, with alternative livelihoods found for its practitioners.[27]
Zaire (5% prevalence)
Female genital mutilation is present in Zaire.[28]
Zimbabwe
Female genital mutilation is present in Zimbabwe.[17]

Central and Southeast Asia

Tajikistan
Female genital mutilation is present in Tajikistan.[29]
Indonesia
Type I and IV. In 2006 FGM was banned by the government. However, since the ban the practice has undergone a resurgence, primarily due to promotion by religious groups such as Indonesian Ulema Council.[30]
Malaysia
Type IV. No laws exist in reference to FGM,[31] although the practice is reported in certain regions.[32]

Near and Middle East

Afghanistan
Female genital mutilation is present in Afghanistan.[29]
Iran
Female genital mutilation exists in Western and Southern Iran, primarily in Iranian Kurdistan where it is reported to be widespread, but also in regions such as Khuzestan.[8][33]
Iraq, Iraqi Kurdistan (72.7% prevalence (excluding Dohuk), Type I and II
[34] There is no law against FGM in Iraqi Kurdistan, but in 2007 a draft legislation condemning the practice was submitted to the Regional Parliament, but was not passed.[35] A 2011 bill criminalizing the procedure was passed by the parliament of Iraqi Kurdistan and now awaits the ratification of President Massud Barzani.[36]
Jordan
Female genital mutilation is prevalent in Jordan.[8]
Oman
The practice is prevalent in Oman.[37]
Pakistan
The practice is present in certain ethnic groups in Pakistan i.e. (Dawoodi Bohra Muslims).[38]
Palestinian territories
Female genital mutilation is present in Palestinian territories.[38][39]
Qatar
Female genital mutilation is present in Qatar.[8]
Saudi-Arabia
Female gender mutilation is prevalent, but is declining.[8]
Syria
Circumstantial evidence suggests FGM exists in Syria.[8]
Turkey
Circumstantial evidence suggests FGM exists in Turkey.[8][40]
United Arab Emirates
The WHO mentions a study that documents FGM in the United Arab Emirates, but does not provide data.[41] The practice is reportedly prevalent in rural and urban UAE, but is declining.[42])
Yemen
23% prevalence in women 15 to 49; in addition to the adult prevalence, UNICEF reports that 20% of women aged 15–49 have a daughter who had the procedure.[43]

Legal status in other regions

Australia
In 1994 there were several anecdotal reports of FGM being practised amongst migrant communities in Australia.[44] By 1997, all Australian states and territories had made FGM a criminal offence. It is also a criminal offence to take, or propose to take, a child outside Australia to have a FGM procedure performed.[45] The incidence of FGM in Australia is unknown as it is unreported to authorities and is often only uncovered when women and girls are taken to hospital due to complications with the procedure.[46]
Canada
FGM is considered child assault and prohibited under sections 267 (assault causing bodily harm) or 268 (aggravated assault, including wounding, maiming, disfiguring) of the Criminal Code.[47]
France
criminal offense punishable by up to 20 years in jail. The law requires anyone to report any case of mutilation or planned mutilation.
Italy
After a few cases of infibulation practiced by complaisant medical practitioners within the African immigrants community came to public knowledge through media coverage, the Law n°7/2006 was passed on 1/9/2006, becoming effective on 1/28/2006, concerning "Measures of prevention and prohibition of any female genital mutilation practice"; the Act is also known as the Legge Consolo ("Consolo Act") named after its primary promoter, Senator Giuseppe Consolo. Article 6 of the law integrates the Italian Penal Code with Articles 583-Bis and 583-Ter, punishing any practice of female genital mutilation "not justifiable under therapeutical or medical needs" with imprisonment ranging from 4 to 12 years (3 to 7 years for any mutilation other than, or less severe than, clitoridectomy, excision or infibulation). Penalty can be reduced up to 2⁄3 if the harm caused is of modest entity (i.e. if partially or completely unsuccessful), but may also be elevated up to 1⁄3 if the victim is a minor or if the offense has been committed for profit. An Italian citizen or a foreign citizen legally resident in Italy can be punished under this law even if the offense is committed abroad; the law will as well afflict any individual of any citizenship in Italy, even illegally or provisionally. The law also mandates any medical practitioner found guilty under those provisions to have his/her medical license revoked for a minimum of six up to a maximum of ten years.[48]
Norway
FGM is punishable as a criminal offense under Norwegian law even if the offence is committed abroad.
Netherlands
FGM is considered mutilation and is punishable as a criminal offense under Dutch law. There is no specific law against FGM: the act is subsumed under the general offense of inflicting harm ("mishandling", art. 300–304 Dutch Criminal Code). The maximum penalty is a prison sentence of 12 years. However, the sentence can be higher if the offender is a family member of the victim. It is also illegal to assist or encourage another person to perform FGM. A Dutch citizen or a foreign citizen legally resident in the Netherlands can be punished even if the offense is committed abroad. Doctors have the obligation to report suspected cases of FGM and may break patient confidentiality rules if necessary.
New Zealand
Under a 1995 amendment to the Crimes Act, it is illegal to perform "any medical or surgical procedure or mutilation of the vagina or clitoris of any person" for reasons of "culture, religion, custom or practice". It is also illegal to send or make any arrangement for a child to be sent out of New Zealand for FGM to be performed, assist or encourage any person in New Zealand to perform FGM on a New Zealand citizen or resident outside New Zealand convince or encourage any other New Zealand citizen or resident to go outside New Zealand to have FGM performed.[49]
Spain
The Criminal Code does state that sexual mutilation, such as FGM, is a criminal offense punishable by up to 12 years in jail.
Sweden
FGM is punishable according to Act (1982:316) Prohibiting Female Genital Mutilation. Sweden was the first Western country to prohibit FGM, legislation against 'female circumcision' passed in 1982. In 1998 the law was revised with a change in terminology and more severe penalties for breaking the law were imposed. The law was further reformulated in 1999, to allow for prosecution in a Swedish court of someone performing FGM even if the act has been performed in a country where it is not considered criminal (removal of the principle of double incrimination).[50]
United Kingdom
FGM was made a criminal offense by the Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985.[51] This was superseded by the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003, and (in Scotland) by the Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005. Taking a UK citizen or permanent resident abroad for the purpose of FGM is a criminal offense whether or not it is lawful in the country the girl is taken to.[52]
United States
Federal law prohibiting FGM was enacted in 1996. Seventeen states enacted similar laws between 1994 and 2006.[53]

Notes

  1. ^ "Female genital mutilation", World Health Organization, February 2010.
  2. ^ Momoh, Comfort (ed). "Female Genital Mutilation", Radcliffe Publishing, 2005, pp. 6–7.
  3. ^ "What is female genital mutilation?, Amnesty International, AI Index: ACT 77/06/97, accessed September 3, 2011.
  4. ^ a b Razor's Edge – The Controversy of Female Genital Mutilation
  5. ^ "Egypt forbids female circumcision", BBC News, 28 June 2007.
  6. ^ a b Stop FGM in Kurdistan
  7. ^ Strobel S, von der Osten-Sacken T (2006-03-27). "Female genital mutilation in Iraqi Kurdistan. Presented at the 1ère Journée Humanitaire sur la Santé des Femmes dans le Monde, Paris, France". Gynécologie sans Frontières. http://www.stopfgmkurdistan.org/html/english/updates/update003e.htm. 
  8. ^ a b c d e f g Birch, Nicholas. "Female circumcision surfaces in Iraq", Christian Science Monitor, 10 August 2005.
  9. ^ "Bedouins shunning FGM/C – new research", IRIN, March 4, 2009.
  10. ^ " Indonesia: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC)", U.S. Department of State, June 1, 2001.
  11. ^ "Georgia: Man Convicted in Daughter’s Mutilation", Associated Press, 2 November 2010.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC): Individual Country Reports", U.S. State Department, accessed 7 September 2011.
  13. ^ Raya, Patricia Diane. "Female Genital Mutilation and the Perpetuation of Multigenerational Trauma", The Journal of Psychohistory, Spring 2010.
  14. ^ a b c FGM Education and Networking Project, Fgmnetwork.org, accessed 5 February 2011.
  15. ^ Stolz, Joëllepr (September 1998). "Le Burkina Faso fait reculer l'excision" (in French). Le Monde diplomatique: p. 18. http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1998/09/STOLZ/10970. 
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "FGC Prevalence Rates Diagram", African Women's Health Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, accessed 7 September 2011.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g "Female Genital Mutilation", UK Border Agency, 20 June 2008.
  18. ^ Michael, Maggie. "Egypt Officials Ban Female Circumcision", The Associated Press, 29 June 2007.
  19. ^ "Egypt strengthens ban on female genital cutting", Reuters, 28 June 2007.
  20. ^ "Egypt death sparks debate on female circumcision", Reuters, 20 June 2007.
  21. ^ "Eritrea bans female circumcision", BBC News, 4 April 2007.
  22. ^ http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/guineabissau_59787.html
  23. ^ "FGM: Kenya acts against unkindest cut", The Guardian, 8 September 2011.
  24. ^ Unicef: Somalia
  25. ^ "Uganda Bans Female Genital Mutilation", BBC News, |10 December 2009.
  26. ^ Uganda Government News: Uganda asked to ratify Women’s rights protocol, UGPulse, November 27, 2008
  27. ^ "Museveni condemns genital cutting", The New Vision, Kampala, 2 July 2007.
  28. ^ McVeigh, Tracy and Sutton, Tara. "British girls undergo horror of genital mutilation despite tough laws", The Guardian, 25 July 2010.
  29. ^ a b Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Family, Body, Sexuality and Health , Volume 3 (Encyclopaedia of Women and Islamic Cultures). Brill Academic Publishers. 2005. p. 588. 
  30. ^ "INDONESIA: Female genital mutilation persists despite ban", IRIN Global, 2 September 2010.
  31. ^ "Legislation and other national provisions", Inter-Parliamentary Union, accessed 21 November 2010.
  32. ^ Rahman Isa A, Shuib R, Shukri Othman M (1999 May). "The practice of female circumcision among Muslims in Kelantan, Malaysia". Reproductive Health Matters 7 (13): 137–144. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(99)90125-8. 
  33. ^ Golnaz Esfandiari (2009-03-10). "Female Genital Mutilation Said To Be Widespread In Iraq's, Iran's Kurdistan". Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty. http://www.rferl.org/content/Female_Genital_Mutilation_Said_To_Be_Widespread_In_Iraqs_Irans_Kurdistan/1507621.html. 
  34. ^ "Female Genital Mutilation in Iraqi Kurdistan – A Study", WADI, accessed 15 February 2010.
  35. ^ "Draft for a Law Prohibiting Female Genital Mutilation is submitted to the Kurdish Regional Parliament", Stop FGM in Kurdistan, accessed 21 November 2010.
  36. ^ "Iraqi Kurdistan: Law Banning FGM a Positive Step". Human Rights Watch. 2011-07-25. http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/07/25/iraqi-kurdistan-law-banning-fgm-positive-step. 
  37. ^ "Is Female Genital Mutilation an Islamic Problem?", Middle East Quarterly, accessed 5 February 2011.
  38. ^ a b Mutilation/Cutting: Promoting Gender Equality, UNFPA, accessed 5 February 2011.
  39. ^ Gender Equality in West Bank and Gaza|Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), Genderindex.org, 16 February 2007.
  40. ^ http://www.khrp.org/khrp-news/human-rights-documents/briefing-papers/doc_download/218-the-practice-of-female-genital-mutilation-fgm-in-the-kurdish-regions.html
  41. ^ "Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An interagency statement", World Health Organization, 2008, p. 30.
  42. ^ Kvello, Ane; Sayed L, Sundby J (2003-09-06). "Concerning female circumcision in the United Arab Emirates: Is clitoridectomy in a traditional context an assault against women?". FOKO 2003 – ABSTRACTS. University of Oslo. http://www.med.uio.no/iasam/inthel/foko/invitation.html. 
  43. ^ At a glance: Yemen – Statistics, UNICEF, accessed 5 February 2011.
  44. ^ "The Criminalisation Of Female Genital Mutilation In Queensland". Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law. 2002-09. http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v9n3/spencer93_text.html. 
  45. ^ Royal Australian College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists (1997), Female Genital Mutilation: Information for Australian Health Professionals, Royal Australian College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists 
  46. ^ "Girls mutilated for 'tradition'", The Sunday Telegraph, 5 November 2006.
  47. ^ Federal Interdepartmental Working Group on Female Genital Mutilation (1999), Female genital mutilation and health care – an exploration of the needs and roles of affected communities and health care providers in Canada, Health Canada 
  48. ^ Italian Law n°7 1/9/2006, Disposizioni concernenti la prevenzione e il divieto delle pratiche di mutilazione genitale femminile, accessed 23 March 2009.
  49. ^ "Female Genital Mutilation: Information for health and child protection professionals, New Zealand Ministry of Health, accessed 7 September 2011.
  50. ^ Johnsdotter, Sara (2004). FGM in Sweden: Swedish Legislation Regarding 'Female Genital Mutilation' and Implementation of the Law. Research Report in Sociology 2004:1. Lund University. 
  51. ^ Kerbaj, Richard. "Thousands of girls mutilated in Britain", The Times, 16 March 2009.
  52. ^ Notes on some overseas countries' laws, The FGM Education and Networking Project
  53. ^ Susan Deller Ross (2008). Women's Human Rights: The International and Comparative Law Casebook. Vantage Press, Inc. p. 509. 
Female genital mutilation
Issues
People
Support
Books and films
Legislation
Category
Female genital mutilation
Adnexa
Uterus
Vagina
Vulva
Medical imaging

M: ♀ FRS

anat/phys/devp

noco/cong/npls, sysi/epon

proc/asst, drug (G1/G2B/G3CD)
Issues
Category
Violence against women